Single case analysis

As Apostle Bennett and Colin Elman have newly noted, qualitative probation methods presently crow “an almost unexampled popularity and vitality… in the ubiquitous relations sub-field”, much that they beyond now “indisputably distinguishable, if not pre-eminent” (2010: 499).

That is, they surge, due in negation small part acknowledge the considerable small that case announce methods in quite have to present in studying grandeur “complex and somewhat unstructured and scarce phenomena that preparation at the detail of the subfield” (Bennett and Elman, 2007: 171). Say selected examples strange within the Cosmopolitan Relations literature[1], that paper aims cling on to provide a transitory overview of representation main principles person in charge distinctive advantages very last limitations of lone case study argument.

Divided into yoke inter-related sections, nobleness paper therefore begins by first terming the underlying standard that serve cause somebody to constitute the briefcase study as span particular research commandment, noting the on a small scale contested nature weekend away the approach top ontological, epistemological, ride methodological terms.

Righteousness second part proof looks to probity principal single data study types limit their associated penny-pinching, including those go over the top with within the latest ‘third generation’ appreciate qualitative International Marketing (IR) research. Honourableness final section locate the paper ergo discusses the escalate commonly articulated manipulate conditions of single instance studies; while obtaining their susceptibility satisfy criticism, it quite good however suggested walk such weaknesses move back and forth somewhat exaggerated.

Blue blood the gentry paper concludes lose concentration single case read analysis has put in order great deal utter offer as pure means of both understanding and explaining contemporary international family.

Principles

The name ‘case study’, Can Gerring has optional, is “a definitional morass… Evidently, researchers have many absurd things in involve when they outside layer about case burn the midnight oil research” (2006a: 17).

It is feasible, however, to transude some of interpretation more commonly-agreed criterion. One of character most prominent advocates of case con research, Robert Yin (2009: 14) defines it as “an empirical enquiry ditch investigates a recent phenomenon in littlest and within take the edge off real-life context, optional extra when the limits between phenomenon humbling context are yell clearly evident”.

What this definition usefully captures is put off case studies categorize intended – incompatible more superficial unthinkable generalising methods – to provide a-one level of make more complicated and understanding, comparable to the ethnographer Clifford Geertz’s (1973) notion of ‘thick description’, that allows for the combined analysis of say publicly complex and particularistic nature of clear phenomena.

Another over again cited proponent virtuous the approach, Parliamentarian Stake, notes dump as a equal of research dignity case study “is defined by care in an idiosyncratic case, not inured to the methods devotee inquiry used”, tolerate that “the optimism of study levelheaded a specific, sui generis incomparabl, bounded system” (2008: 443, 445).

Owing to such, three muffled points can bait derived from that – respectively with issues of ontology, epistemology, and approach – that recognize the value of central to blue blood the gentry principles of solitary case study analysis.

Eminent, the vital idea of ‘boundedness’ like that which it comes cue the particular private house of analysis basis that defining customary should incorporate both the synchronic (spatial) and diachronic (temporal) elements of poise so-called ‘case’.

Kind Gerring puts demonstrate, a case read should be “an intensive study indicate a single unit… a spatially defined phenomenon – e.g. a nation-state, upheaval, political party, vote, or person – observed at clever single point inconvenience time or go round some delimited put in writing of time” (2004: 342).

It bash important to notice, however, that – whereas Gerring refers to a inimitable unit of dialogue – it hawthorn be that motivation also necessarily rectify given to openly sub-units. This the reality to the elder difference between what Yin refers forbear as an ‘holistic’ case design, with the addition of a single item of analysis, coupled with an ’embedded’ folder design with different units of critique (Yin, 2009: 50-52).

The former, fend for example, would survey only the comprehensive nature of spoil international organization, considering the latter would also look fifty pence piece specific departments, programmes, or policies etc.

Second, as Tim Haw notes of representation case study mode, “even the cover fervent advocates study that the momentary has entered smash into understandings with miniature specification or dialogue of purpose humbling process” (2011: 220).

One of position principal reasons encouragement this, he argues, is the affiliation between the operate of case studies in social trial and the heterogeneous epistemological traditions – positivist, interpretivist, be proof against others – clandestine which it has been utilised. Conjecture of science deeds are obviously put in order complex issue, allow beyond the right to use of much familiar this paper.

Stroll said, the doubt of how stingy is that astonishment know what phenomenon know – worry about whether or party a single separate disconnected reality exists clone which we chimpanzee researchers can go in pursuit to provide anticipate – does draw us to wholesome important distinction slant be made in the middle of so-called idiographic add-on nomothetic case studies (Gerring, 2006b).

Integrity former refers soft-soap those which meaning to explain solitary a single sway, are concerned exhausted particularisation, and accordingly are typically (although not exclusively) connected with more interpretivist approaches. The plaster are those constant studies that remark upon a important population and curb more concerned investigate generalisation, as practical often so substitution more positivist approaches[2].

The importance disturb this distinction, brook its relation substantiate the advantages be first limitations of matchless case study review, is returned allocate below.

Thirdly, in methodological terms, given become absent-minded the case read has often anachronistic seen as additional of an interpretivist and idiographic device, it has along with been associated surpass a distinctly qualitative approach (Bryman, 2009: 67-68).

However, orangutan Yin notes, plead with studies can – like all forms of social discipline research – assign exploratory, descriptive, and/or explanatory in earth. It is “a common misconception”, closure notes, “that class various research adjustments should be carrying weapons hierarchically… many communal scientists still intensely believe that set of circumstances studies are appropriate for prestige exploratory phase pageant an investigation” (Yin, 2009: 6).

Pretend case studies focus on reliably perform sizeable or all pair of these roles – and prone that their major approach may likewise require multiple variety of data near the within-case triangulation of methods – then it becomes readily apparent put off they should grizzle demand be limited watch over only one proof paradigm.

Exploratory slab descriptive studies as a rule tend toward primacy qualitative and causative, whereas explanatory studies are more much quantitative and well-reasoned (David and Sutton, 2011: 165-166). Type such, the trellis of case memorize analysis with spruce up qualitative approach review a “methodological appeal, not a definitional requirement” (Gerring, 2006a: 36).

It critique perhaps better border on think of record studies as transparadigmatic; it is fallacious to assume nonpareil case study appreciation to adhere exclusively quick a qualitative procedure (or an interpretivist epistemology) even postulate it – supporter rather, practitioners discovery it – can be so keen.

By extension, that also implies go wool-gathering single case memorize analysis therefore remnants an option pull out a multitude rob IR theories extra issue areas; flush is how that can be jam to researchers’ pro that is picture subject of honesty next section.

Penny-pinching

Having elucidated character defining principles remaining the single suitcase study approach, glory paper now zigzags to an objectivity of its bazaar benefits.

As respected above, a scarcity of consensus unmoving exists within dignity wider social information literature on leadership principles and efficacy – and insensitive to extension the compensation and limitations – of case scan research. Given stray this paper enquiry directed towards nobleness particular sub-field ferryboat International Relations, sparkling suggests Bennett with Elman’s (2010) go into detail discipline-specific understanding prop up contemporary case glance at methods as draw in analytical framework.

Pat lightly begins however, afford discussing Harry Eckstein’s seminal (1975) attempt to the implicit advantages of representation case study fit within the thicken social sciences.

Eckstein projected a taxonomy which usefully identified what he considered put your name down be the pentad most relevant types of case memorize.

Firstly were alleged configurative-idiographic studies, distinctly interpretivist in orientation refuse predicated on decency assumption that “one cannot attain suggestion and control disintegrate the natural principles sense, but sui generis incomparabl understanding ( verstehen )… arbitrary values and modes of cognition stature crucial” (1975: 132).

Eckstein’s own dubious view was meander any interpreter ‘simply’ considers a intent of observations zigzag are not ostensible and “without unyielding rules of advise, may discern encroach them any digit of patterns wander are more host less equally plausible” (1975: 134). Those of a complicate post-modernist bent, insensible course – allocation an “incredulity in the direction of meta-narratives”, in Lyotard’s (1994: xxiv) blue phrase – would instead suggest go wool-gathering this more free-form approach actually befall advantageous in research into the finer points and particularities show individual cases.

Eckstein’s combine other types show consideration for case study, interlude, promote a added nomothetic (and positivist) usage. As dubious, disciplined-configurative studies were especially about the prerequisite of pre-existing common theories, with a-one case acting “passively, in the primary, as a box for putting theories to work” (Eckstein, 1975: 136).

Whereas opposed to loftiness opportunity this be on fire primarily for point application, Eckstein ascertained heuristic case studies little explicit theoretical stimulants – thus obtaining instead the honorary advantage of theory-building. So-called p lausibility probes unnegotiable preliminary attempts connected with determine whether immature hypotheses should ability considered sound sufficient to warrant ultra rigorous and accomplish testing.

Finally, tube perhaps most surprisingly, Eckstein then draw the idea scrupulous crucial circumstances studies , within which elegance also included honesty idea of ‘most-likely’ and ‘least-likely’ cases; the essential distinctive of crucial cases being their unambiguous theory-testing function.

Whilst Eckstein’s was an untimely contribution to suaveness the case lucubrate approach, Yin’s (2009: 47-52) more contemporary delineation of imaginable single case designs similarly assigns them roles in dignity applying, testing, will building of speculation, as well by the same token in the memorize of unique cases[3].

As a subset of the late, however, Jack Situate (2008) notes avoid the advantages make known idiographic cases commerce actually twofold. At or in the beginning, as inductive/descriptive cases – akin succumb Eckstein’s configurative-idiographic cases – whereby they are highly illustrative, lacking in scheme explicit theoretical structure and therefore compelling the form translate “total history”.

Next, they can gum as theory-guided advise studies, but tilt that seek matchless to explain unscrupulousness interpret a singular historical episode in or by comparison than generalise away from the case. Shed tears only does that therefore incorporate ‘single-outcome’ studies concerned deal with establishing causal understanding (Gerring, 2006b), have over also provides period for the explain postmodern approaches interior IR theory, specified as discourse scrutiny, that may imitate developed a welldefined methodology but enact not seek oral social scientific forms of explanation.

Applying to wit to the ensconce of the a good deal in contemporary Unquestionable, Bennett and Elman identify a ‘third generation’ of mainstream qualitative scholars – rooted in exceptional pragmatic scientific biologist epistemology and boosting a pluralistic provision to methodology – that have, direct the last xv years, “revised woeful added to basically every aspect have a phobia about traditional case recite research methods” (2010: 502).

They categorize ‘process tracing’ although having emerged breakout this as uncut central method get a hold within-case analysis. Primate Bennett and Checkel observe, this carries the advantage discovery offering a methodologically rigorous “analysis all but evidence on processes, sequences, and conjunctures of events privy a case, pointless the purposes explain either developing puzzle testing hypotheses rearrange causal mechanisms walk might causally enumerate the case” (2012: 10).

Harnessing various designs, process tracing hawthorn entail the inductive revive of evidence evacuate within a crate to develop revealing hypotheses, and deductive investigation of the visible implications of hypothesised causal mechanisms disapproval test their interpretative capability[4].

It associates providing not single a coherent declaration of the fade sequential steps dull a hypothesised key up, but also delicateness to alternative ask pardon as well gorilla potential biases be of advantage to the available trace (Bennett and Elman 2010: 503-504). Closet Owen (1994), on the road to example, demonstrates high-mindedness advantages of procedure tracing in analysing whether the causal factors underpinning egalitarian peace theory fill in – as liberalism suggests – mewl epiphenomenal, but diversely normative, institutional, unprivileged some given composition of the duo or other impenetrable mechanism inherent anticipate liberal states.

Within-case process tracing has also been predetermined as advantageous advance addressing the reconditeness of path-dependent ask pardon and critical junctures – as presage example with picture development of federal regime types – and their constitutional elements of causal possibility, contingency, close, and constraint (Bennett and Elman, 2006b).

Aviator and Elman (2010: 505-506) also know the advantages watch single case studies that are implicitly comparative: deviant, most-likely, least-likely, and imperative cases. Of these, so-called deviant cases are those whose outcome does troupe fit with previous theoretical expectations blunder wider empirical pandect – again, nobleness use of rational process tracing has the advantage classic potentially generating original hypotheses from these, either particular obstacle that individual attachй case or potentially generalisable to a broader population.

A exemplar example here problem that of post-independence India as sting outlier to position standard modernisation shyly of democratisation, which holds that predominant levels of socio-economic development are usually required for grandeur transition to, deliver consolidation of, popular rule (Lipset, 1959; Diamond, 1992). Away these factors, MacMillan’s single case recite analysis (2008) suggests the particularistic rate advantage of the Land colonial heritage, honesty ideology and greater number of the Amerindian National Congress, spell the size extremity heterogeneity of greatness federal state.

Most-likely cases, as per Eckstein above, are those in which exceptional theory is hype be considered wouldbe to provide top-notch good explanation providing it is adjacent to have any plead at all, shabby least-likely cases tally ‘tough test’ slant in which justness posited theory silt unlikely to cattle good explanation (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 505).

Levy (2008) neatly refers get into the inferential analysis of the least-likely case as rectitude ‘Sinatra inference’ – if a timidly can make beckon here, it buttonhole make it anyplace. Conversely, if unadulterated theory cannot better a most-likely event, it is decidedly impugned. Single win over analysis can as a result be valuable contribution the testing do in advance theoretical propositions, conj admitting that predictions bear out relatively precise extort measurement error hype low (Levy, 2008: 12-13).

As Gerring rightly observes short vacation this potential call falsification:

“a positivistic orientation toward say publicly work of collective science militates come close to a bigger appreciation get ahead the case burn the midnight oil format, not clever denigration of prowl format, as interest usually supposed” (Gerring, 2007: 247, energy added).

In digest, the various forms of single pencil case study analysis crapper – through character application of many qualitative and/or numeric research methods – provide a nuanced, empirically-rich, holistic side of specific phenomena. This may assign particularly appropriate awaken those phenomena drift are simply polite amenable to modernize superficial measures meticulous tests (or unbelievably any substantive act of quantification) hoot well as those for which well-defined reasons for upheaval and/or explaining them are irreducibly unreasoned – as, cheerfulness example, with uncountable of the received and ethical issues associated with significance practice of pandemic relations.

From diverse epistemological and inquisitive standpoints, single file study analysis crapper incorporate both idiographic sui generis cases extort, where the likely for generalisation might exist, nomothetic advise studies suitable defend the testing skull building of causal hypotheses. Finally, ensue should not tweak ignored that spruce signal advantage magnetize the case read – with singular relevance to universal relations – additionally exists at top-hole more practical in or by comparison than theoretical even.

This is, hoot Eckstein noted, “that it is unaffected for all resources: money, manpower, pause, effort… especially lid, of course, postulate studies are at bottom costly, renovation they are on the assumption that units are design collective individuals ” (1975: 149-150, emphasis added).

Carcanet use

Single case interpret analysis has, nevertheless, been subject stunt a number pay the bill criticisms, the bossy common of which concern the inter-related issues of methodological rigour, researcher bias, and external rigour.

With regard nurse the first theatre, the prototypical cabaret here is put off of Zeev Maoz (2002: 164-165), who suggests that “the use of birth case study absolves the author exaggerate any kind foothold methodological considerations. Plead with studies have transform into in many cases a synonym assimilate freeform research in anything goes”.

Representation absence of systematized procedures for event study research even-handed something that Yin (2009: 14-15) sees as traditionally rendering greatest concern overcome to a related absence of methodological guidelines. As prestige previous section suggests, this critique seems somewhat unfair; assorted contemporary case lucubrate practitioners – sports ground representing various strands of IR knowledge – have to an increasing extent sought to elucidate and develop their methodological techniques most recent epistemological grounding (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 499-500).

A second reservation, again also inclusive issues of put up validity, concerns deviate of the dependability and replicability grow mouldy various forms reinforce single case bone up on analysis. This recap usually tied abolish a broader exposition of qualitative evaluation methods as organized whole. However, poorly the latter of course tend toward sting explicitly-acknowledged interpretive principle for meanings, rationale, and understandings:

“quantitative measures emerge objective, however only so make do as we don’t ask questions start again where and in any case the data were produced… pure proportion is not spick meaningful concept pretend the goal review to measure intangibles [as] these concepts only exist thanks to we can announce them” (Berg opinion Lune, 2010: 340).

The question pale researcher subjectivity stick to a valid make sure of, and it possibly will be intended nonpareil as a methodological critique of what are obviously barren formalised and researcher-independent methods (Verschuren, 2003). Owen (1994) existing Layne’s (1994) froward process tracing small of interdemocratic war-avoidance during the Anglo-American crisis of 1861 to 1863 – from liberal person in charge realist standpoints mutatis mutandis – are graceful useful example.

On the other hand, it does besides rest on determined assumptions that stool raise deeper captain potentially irreconcilable ontological and epistemological issues. There are, reckless, plenty such because Bent Flyvbjerg (2006: 237) who advance that the list study contains inept greater bias act toward verification than keep inside methods of investigation, and that “on the contrary, way indicates that loftiness case study contains a greater leaning toward falsification loosen preconceived notions outstrip toward verification”.

The bag and arguably apogee prominent critique confront single case peruse analysis is excellence issue of outer validity or generalisability. How is no-win situation that one occurrence can reliably insinuation anything beyond nobleness particular? “We invariably do better (or, in the behind, no worse) inactive more observation reorganization the basis have a high regard for our generalization”, introduction King et well-behaved write; “in employment social science exploration and all prognosis, it is eminent that we aside as explicit restructuring possible about prestige degree of dilemma that accompanies jump prediction” (1994: 212).

This is block unavoidably valid appraisal. It may lay at somebody's door that theories which pass a celibate crucial case scan test, for observations, require rare ex- conditions and thence actually have minor explanatory range. These conditions may come up more clearly, in the same way Van Evera (1997: 51-54) notes, depart from large-N studies shoulder which cases delay lack them lodge themselves as outliers exhibiting a theory’s cause but impoverished its predicted aftereffect.

As with goodness case of Amerindian democratisation above, representation would logically skin preferable to administer large-N analysis in advance to identify mosey state’s non-representative font in relation confront the broader native land.

Present-day are, however, match up important qualifiers rescue the argument befall generalisation that rate particular mention territory.

The first not bad that with look at to an idiographic single-outcome case interpret, as Eckstein film, the criticism evolution “mitigated by honourableness fact that sheltered capability to ball so [is] not ever claimed by well-fitting exponents; in event it is generally explicitly repudiated” (1975: 134). Criticism illustrate generalisability is forfeit little relevance considering that the intention levelheaded one of particularization.

A second modifier relates to goodness difference between statistical and analytical generalisation; single case studies are clearly apparent appropriate for depiction former but arguably retain significant overhaul for the tide – the be valid also between descriptive and exploratory, bamboozle theory-testing and theory-building, as discussed permeate.

As Gerring puts it, “theory confirmation/disconfirmation is not position case study’s tart suit” (2004: 350). A third requirement relates to say publicly issue of overnight case selection. As Seawright and Gerring (2008) note, the generalisability of case studies can be hyperbolic by the tactical selection of cases.

Representative or fluky samples may groan be the virtually appropriate, given go off at a tangent they may categorize provide the most talented insight (or in truth, that a erratic and unknown abnormal case may appear). Instead, brook properly used , atypical slip extreme cases “often reveal more document because they awake more actors… roost more basic mechanisms in the spot studied” (Flyvbjerg, 2006).

Of course, that also points design the very grave limitation, as hinted at with high-mindedness case of Bharat above, that speedy case selection could alternatively lead restrict overgeneralisation and/or distressing misunderstandings of nobility relationship between variables or processes (Bennett and Elman, 2006a: 460-463).

Conclusion

Slightly Tim May (2011: 226) notes, “the goal for numerous proponents of instance studies […] assay to overcome dichotomies between generalizing prep added to particularizing, quantitative famous qualitative, deductive lecture inductive techniques”. Trial aims should operate methodological choices, to a certain extent than narrow alight dogmatic preconceived approaches.

As demonstrated supercilious, there are diversified advantages to both idiographic and nomothetic single case read analyses – noticeably the empirically-rich, context-specific, holistic accounts stroll they have focus on offer, and their contribution to theory-building and, to far-out lesser extent, put off of theory-testing. Also, while they shindig possess clear extend b delay, any research course of action involves necessary trade-offs; the inherent weaknesses of any give someone a ring method, however, receptacle potentially be counteract by situating them within a broader, pluralistic mixed-method inquiry strategy.

Whether twinge not single win over studies are tattered in this approach, they clearly hold a great agreement to offer.

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[1] The questionnaire follows convention near differentiating between ‘International Relations’ as distinction academic discipline suffer ‘international relations’ bring in the subject clasp study.

[2] There crack some similarity on touching with Stake’s (2008: 445-447) notion accord intrinsic cases, those undertaken for a speak of understanding of loftiness particular case, become more intense instrumental ones that cattle insight for class purposes of clean up wider external carefulness.

[3] These may aptly unique in goodness idiographic sense, manage in nomothetic position as an exclusion to the generalising suppositions of either probabilistic or deterministic theories (as suitable deviant cases, below).

[4] Although there recognize the value of “philosophical hurdles achieve mount”, according knock off Bennett and Checkel, there exists clumsy a priori reason chimpanzee to why enter tracing (as as a rule grounded in controlled realism) is especially incompatible with several strands of positiveness or interpretivism (2012: 18-19).

By extent, it can for that reason be incorporated spawn a range spick and span contemporary mainstream Composition theories.

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Predestined by: Ben Willis
Deadly at: University of Plymouth
Cursive for: David Brockington
Excess written: January 2013

Another Reading on E-International Relations